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Amit Sachdev
India Consultant
World Wide Sires
E mail: indiawws@gmail.com

Reduce GHG emissions from the dairy industry – increase efficiency of production; A new approach – when to introduce fresh calved dairy heifers

Reduce GHG emissions from the dairy industry – increase efficiency of production

A new report from Foreign Agricultural Office (FAO), suggests that of the total global anthropogenic  (caused by humans) green house emissions (GHG), the dairy sector accounts for around four per cent of the emissions. A report in 2006 from FAO has stated that 18 percent of the emissions are from livestock sector.

The 4 percent emissions include all the emissions associated with the production, processing and transportation of milk products as well as emissions related to meat produced from animals originating from the dairy system.

Considering just global milk production, processing and transportation and excluding meat production, the sector contributes 2.7 per cent of global anthropogenic GHG emissions.

In 2007, the dairy sector emitted 1,969 MMT of carbon dioxide (CO2) equivalent, of which 1,328 MMT were attributed to milk, 151 MMT attributed to meat from culled dairy animals, and 490 MMT from calves from the dairy sector that were raised for meat. The report does not include emissions from Buffaloes. The CO2 equivalent emission is a standard measurement for comparing emissions of different GHGs.

The global average of GHG emissions per kilogram of milk and related milk products is estimated at 2.4 kg CO2 equivalent.

Methane contributes most to the global warming impact of milk, accounting for about 52 per cent of the GHG emissions in both developing and developed countries.

Methane from enteric (microbial) fermentation represents 20% and manure management 7% of the total CH4 emitted. Ruminants (beef, dairy, goats, and sheep) are the main contributors to CH4 production.

The ruminant animal is unique because of its four stomach compartments: reticulum, rumen, omasum and abomasum. The rumen is a large, hollow muscular organ where microbial fermentation occurs. It can hold 150 to 230 liters of material and an estimated 150 billion microorganisms per teaspoon are present in its contents. The function of the rumen as a fermentation vat and the presence of certain bacteria promote the development of gases. These gases are found in the upper part of the rumen with CO2 and CH4 making up the largest portion, 65.5% and 26.8% respectively.

Considering a fact that the world has 1300 million dairy cattle, each animal would contribute 1.02 MT of CO2. Based on the above, considering the numbers for 2006 as the Dept of AH, India had 8.2 million crossbred animals in production and 28.37 million non descript animals in production and the milk production was 19.244 MMT and 20.415 MMT respectively. The average milk production was 1.087 T/animal/year. The GHG emission would have been 37.37 MMT. As the a report from IFPRI, the estimated cow population in India would be 38.317 million and the production of milk attributed to cows would be about 41% of the total milk production, approximately 44.485 MMT, with an average milk production of 1.16 tons/animal/lactation. Based on the above, Indian cows contribute 39.09 MMT of CO2 equivalents, which in case of US would be only 10.2 MMT, based on the fact that the total population of cows in US is only 10 Million, with an average production of 10 tons/animal/year.

It is important to understand that and identify opportunities where in interventions can be made to reduce the emissions. 

As per a report from Penn State University, research has been conducted in Canada, Australia, Europe and the US on strategies to reduce methane emissions from dairy. The main focus has been on nutritional strategies, including feed higher efficiency feeds, good quality forages etc. Increasing the efficiency of production in which animals use nutrients efficiently to produce milk can result in reduced CH4 emissions. This can be accomplished by feeding high quality, highly digestible forages and grains including balanced rations.

Relatively new mitigation options have been considered and include the addition of such additives as probiotics, acetogens, bacteriocins, organic acids, and plant extracts (i.e. condensed tannins). For the long-term approach though genetic selection of cows that have improved feed efficiency (produce more milk/kg of feed consumed) is the only possibility. 

A new approach – when to introduce fresh calved dairy heifers

An important decision so as the older, resident animals are not aggressive and harm the new entrants in the family. A Report from Queens University, cites that the newly calved heifers should be introduced in the main herd after the second milking (afternoon milking) only. An early morning release may have a negative impact on fresh animals.

Heifers normally have a low social status and could be subjected to increased bullying by older resident females. This could be stressful to the animals and could affect the performance. It has been found that cows are naturally less socially active in the evening and hence less aggressive.

Also it is important that the fresh heifers are introduced 24-36 hours after the calving. 

Amit Sachdev

India Consultant

World Wide Sires

E mail: indiawws@gmail.com

Mastitis prevention and control - important for a profitable dairy operation

Mastitis is an inflammation of the mammary gland and the presence of an intra-mammary infection (IMI) is not required for mastitis to exist. However, the vast majority of mastitis cases are due to an intra-mammary infection caused by microorganisms. Over 100 different microorganisms have been shown to cause IMI but most of the economic losses are associated with species of staphylococci, streptococci, and the coli-form bacteria.

Major Mastitis-Causing Pathogens and sources of infection
Pathogen	Source and Control
Staphylococcus aureus	Lives in the udder or on wounds, milkers hands, Transferred to the teat by milking machine or milking practices. Can be controlled by hygiene, milking procedure and culling. Often resistant to treatment.
Streptococcus agalactiae	Lives in the udder and spreads from cow to cow, usually by poor milking practices. Can be controlled by strict hygiene and dry cow therapy. Can be treated successfully during lactation.
Environmental Streptococci (Str. uberis or Str. dysgalactiae	Lives in the environment and can be controlled by good sanitation and hygiene, clean stall and environment management. Responds to lactation and dry cow therapy.
Coliform (E coli, Klebsiella)	Lives in manure, or dirty, wet and muddy areas; polluted water, dirty milking equipment. An environmental problem, which can be tackled by good sanitation and hygiene. Infections can occur between milkings and may also be caused by poor milking practices.

The infectious agents can be divided into two main groups – contagious and environmental including skin flora. The contagious agents spread from cow to cow primarily during milking while the environmentals infect cows mostly from their growth locations in the bedding and surrounding areas.

Despite considerable research on bovine mastitis the disease still remains an economically relevant problem to the dairy industry. Economic losses are estimated to be approximately $250 per cow per year in the U.S, which includes milk lost & discarded, veterinary costs, labor costs etc. Additional costs incurred by the processing industry in terms of reduced cheese yields, and the manufacture of products with reduced shelf life and consumer acceptance, which are normally not taken into account.

Mastitis is the most expensive disease in dairy cattle and good mastitis control program will enhance the profits on the farm. Farmers often think that a cow with clinical mastitis is the problem, and do not realize the full impact of mastitis on the herd. For every one cow that has clinical mastitis, studies have shown there will be 15 to 40 more cows in the herd with subclinical mastitis – and this often goes undetected. 

If the Somatic Cell Count (SCC) is less than 200,000 cells/ml, then there is a likely hood that the problem does not exist, but the farmer still needs to be aware of mastitis and continue to implement practices that will keep mastitis out of the herd.  Herds that have a count of more than 300,000 cells/ml are considered to be problem herds and farmers should implement mastitis control measures. A herd where more than 3 cows per 100 cows show clinical mastitis over a month’s time has a costly mastitis problem because of significant lost milk production and reduced economic returns. Subclinical mastitis infections may cause permanent destruction of milk secretory cells which permanently lower milk producing ability.

Contagious infections are caused by S. aureus, Str. agalactiae, or mycoplasma and are usually spread from infected to non-infected cows during milking. S. aureus organisms colonize abnormal teat ends or teat lesions. Milker’s hands, wash cloths, teat cup liners, and flies are ways in which the infection can be spread from cow to cow. The organisms penetrate the teat canal during milking. Irregular vacuum fluctuations impact milk droplets and bacteria against the teat end with sufficient force to cause teat canal penetration and possible development of new infection

The first step in a mastitis control program thus is to use proper milking Hygiene. This means the teats should be clean & dry when the milk is harvested. Individual towels should be used for each cow so as not to transfer bacteria or microorganisms from one cow to another. Proper cow preparation is a very important step in preventing mastitis causing microorganisms from entering the teat end.

Milk with clean hands and wear sterile gloves if needed.  Pre-dip if allowed and necessary and allow 30 seconds contact time. Dry teats thoroughly, using single service paper or cloth towels. Examine fore-milk for clinical mastitis (flakes, clots, watery milk).  Wash teats with only as much water as necessary to get clean; using paper or cloth towels to scrub teats when dirty. (This step may be eliminated if teats are reasonably clean).

Milking machines can serve as a vector for transferring mastitis organisms from one cow to another, or they may propel droplets of milk back into the teat end, contributing to mastitis. Ensure milking machines are well maintained and the equipment is functioning correctly. Be sure to apply the machines quickly and remove the machines only when the vacuum has been shut off. Listen to the milking machine for air leaks that can cause droplets of milk to be impacted back into the udder of the cow. Avoid over-milking.

Dip teats after milking (iodine solution) covering at least the bottom half of teat. This will kill the microorganisms that are on the teat and aid in closing the sphincter muscle. If environmental mastitis is prevalent in the herd, pre dipping (dipping the teats before milking) and removing the dip completely can assist in the reduction of mastitis. Avoid allowing the dip to become contaminated with manure or other bacteria laden material. Use dip cups that have a small reservoir that will contain enough dip to treat one cow at a time.

Until the sphincter recovers and closes tightly (30-45 minutes), the mammary gland is at high risk for new infections if the teat end is place on bedding or in manure. By providing fresh feed and water after milking, the cows will remain standing to eat while the sphincter closes thus reducing the risk of infection.

The treatment of every quarter of every cow with a specially formulated long lasting antibiotic is essential for providing the cow with protection during the dry period. Most new cases of mastitis occur in the cow during the first two weeks after drying off and the two weeks prior to calving. At these times the infection will go unnoticed and will increase the number of cows that have mastitis early in lactation. This step is essential in reducing the number of new cases in the herd, and is the only way to effectively treat and eliminate contagious mastitis from the herd.

Cows infected with contagious mastitis must either be culled, segregated from the milking herd and milked last, milked with separate milking units, or teat cup liners must be rinsed and sanitized after milking infected cows (backflushed). Treated cows should be milked last to avoid antibiotic contamination of the bulk tank, even when a special milking unit is used.

It is very important to make a conscious effort by the persons milking the cows to detect all mastitis cases, and treat them promptly. Only approved and recommended mastitis treatments should be used to treat cows. It is important the full treatment regime be followed. It is also important that withdrawal times be observed to insure antibiotics are not permitted to contaminate the milk being sold to processors. Milk from treated cows, or cows with mastitis should not be fed to heifer calves.

Cows that do not respond favorably to treatment, or that continue to become infected should be culled from the herd. The continued presence of these cows in the herd can contribute to the infection of other cows in the herd. Cows that do not respond to treatment or continue to become infected are not economic and will cost the dairyman money. When making the decision to cull a cow, make sure the withdrawal time for the antibiotic is observed. 

Developing and following good bio-security system takes time and planning, but the cost to the farm enterprise for not having these systems can be considerable. It is also important to remember that developing bio-security plans decreases the risk of introducing health problems to the herd, but there is no guarantee that it will completely prevent the introduction of disease to the herd. Monitoring bulk tank SCC and bacteria, individual cow SCC, and clinical mastitis rates are ongoing tasks and essential for maintaining high levels of herd health and milk quality.

Information courtesy - Mr.Lindell Whitelock, Consultant, WWS; Mastitis Basics - Dr.John Kirk; Virginia Cooperative Extension Publication (Mastitis pathogen and control) and others.

Amit Sachdev

India Consultant

World Wide Sires

email: indiawws@gmail.com

ESTRUS DETECTION - KEY TO HIGH PREGNANCY RATE

In the last two blog posts I have provided details on handling semen tanks and later handling frozen semen for best results. I hope the information was of value. In the new blog post I will try to provide the information on heat detection. The article below is has been contributed by Mr.Lindell Whitelock, Consultant to World Wide Sires, USA and also information has been taken from Estrus Detection Guide, South Dakota University.

Success in conception is dependent on insemination timing, which is dependent upon a good heat detection program. A continued education program for the workforce is important. A successful heat detection program and subsequent proper timing of insemination will pay dividends in increasing reproductive efficiency. If a cow shows estrus in the morning, it must be inseminated the same day, next day would be too late. If estrus is detected in the afternoon, must plan to inseminate morning of next day at the latest. Plan inseminations in the morning – evening (AM-PM) rule and inseminate the animals within the 5-12 hr period of estrus cycle.

Estrus detection is the key to improving reproduction performance in the dairy herd. It is important not only to determine which cows are in “heat” but also to determine when the cow actually came into standing heat so the cow can be inseminated at a time when the cow is most likely to conceive.

The standing estrus (the sexually receptive period) is a result of a series of hormonal changes that occur at the end of each estrous cycle. Standing estrus is when a cow/heifer stands to be mounted by a bull or a female. In a normally cycling animal, standing estrus will occur approximately every 21 days, but this can range from 17 to 24 days.

Cows enter standing estrus gradually; secondary signs that an animal is getting close to standing estrus will progress until the animal stands to be mounted. None of the secondary signs alone is a positive determination of standing estrus. Standing to be mounted by a bull or another cow/heifer is the only conclusive sign that an animal is in standing estrus and ready to be inseminated.

The period of standing estrus usually lasts about 15 hours but can range from less than 6 hours to close to 24 hours. To maximize detection of standing estrus, it is extremely important to monitor cows/heifers as closely as possible—early in the morning and late at night as well as during the middle of the day.

A report suggests that continuous observation of over 500 animals in three separate studies indicated that 55.9% of cows initiated standing estrus from 6 p.m. to 6 a.m. When cows were checked for standing estrus every 6 hours (6 a.m., noon, 6 p.m., and midnight), the estrous detection rate increased by 19% compared to checking at 6 a.m. and 6 p.m. alone. Checking for standing estrus at 6 a.m., noon, and 6 p.m. increased the estrous detection rate by 10% compared to detecting estrus at 6 a.m. and 6 p.m. alone.

Unfortunately on many farms the estrus detection rate is very low, many times at less than 40%. A good estrus detection program should result in an estrus detection rate of 70% to 80%. Developing a good estrus detection program should be a priority if a farm is experiencing a low pregnancy rates.

Detecting standing estrus (“heat detection” or “detecting standing heat”) is simply looking for the changes in animal behavior that are associated with a cow/heifer standing to be mounted by a bull or another female. Detecting animals in standing estrus is critical to the success of any artificial insemination program. Animals not in estrus around the time of insemination have little chance of becoming pregnant.

The development of a successful estrus detection program involves the following steps. 

Development of a Standard Operating Procedure (SOP): The SOP should address many issues. The SOP should identify the person or persons who are responsible for the task. It should set forth the times when and where the cows are to be observed. It should also specify where the information will be recorded and who gets the information. It should also specify who gets that information and when.

Trained Personnel: Ensure the persons who are assigned the task of estrus detection are trained and confident in identifying the cows. To assist the people who are responsible for identifying the cows, prepare alert lists, consider using estrus detection aids, and even though a cow has been bred, keep watching until a pregnancy is confirmed. Ensure observed heats are recorded and the information is used to make breeding decisions.

Group all the open cows together: By locating all of the cows in one group, the cows are more likely to show behavioral signs of estrus and the observation of the cows can be conducted in a more efficient manner. Ensure the area where the cows are kept is comfortable and the floor surface provides for good footing for the cows. Do not overstock the pens; cows need room to move around if they are to exhibit signs of estrus.

Sore feet: Cows with sore feet do not mount other cows, and they do not allow othe cows to mount them. A cow with sore feet can be identified by an arch in her back. Cows with healthy feet walk with a straight back, so if several cows have even a slight arch in their back, the likelyhood of them showing physical signs of estrus are very low. Minimize sore feet  to improve estrus detection.

Observe cows every 6 to 8 hours: The observation, unless using a “Chalk & Breed” program should not be done at milking time or when cows have been fed. Multiple times observation will not only find more cows in estrus, but will also assist in being able to determine when the first standing heat occurred. This will also result in higher conception rates. ensure the data is recorded and reported so the cow is inseminated.

 

Estrus Detection Aids: Estrus detection aids such as pedometers may be used to assist in the identification of cows that are in estrus. If aids are used, then it is important to observe the cow as well. Look for secondary signs of estrus that would indicate the cow is actually in heat. Estrus detection aids can only help, but they do not replace actual observation of the cow.In every herd there will be problem cows. Cows that are not observed in estrus may require other actions. A program of using an estrus synchronization or hormonal program should be considered for the herd. A protocol should be developed to determine what the voluntary waiting period will be and when synchronization programs would be implemented. There are several synchronization protocols that can be used. 

Problem Cows: In every herd there will be problem cows. Cows that are not observed in estrus may require other actions. A program of using an estrus synchronization or hormonal program should be considered for the herd. A protocol should be developed to determine what the voluntary waiting period will be and when synchronization programs would be implemented. There are several synchronization protocols that can be used.

Key People:  A successful estrus detection program depends on people. The people must be trained, must understand the importance of their task and must communicate their findings. Estrus detection is the key to improved reproduction efficiency and that largely depends on people.

Amit Sachdev

India Consultant

World Wide Sires, USA

Email: indiawws@gmail.com

Handling Frozen Semen and Preparing for Artificial Insemination

Artificial insemination (AI) has contributed enormously to the genetic improvement of the dairy cattle industry in the last 50 years. Frozen semen in 0.5 ml or 0.25 ml straws has become the universally accepted unit of storage and transfer of bovine genetics to cattle producers. While all the care is taken by the semen producers to collect the best quality semen and ship the same in the best possible way, there are times when results are not seen as required. One of the possible reasons is errors in handling of frozen semen.

Proper semen handling procedures from locating the semen in the liquid nitrogen tank to entering the cow's reproductive tract need review periodically.

Everyone should establish a routine for handling frozen and thawed semen that does not injure sperm cells and lower conception rates. Usually, errors made in the handling of frozen - thawed semen and the equipment used for artificial insemination are small. But the mistakes in semen handling frequently add up meaning their effects on semen quality will be magnified many fold.

Few things must be taken into consideration as farmers/inseminators get ready to thaw the semen and inseminate the cows/heifers.

Coordinate rapid transfer of semen between tanks. Involve two people and arrange tanks side by side. If possible fill the tanks with nitrogen before transfer. Raise canisters only to a level necessary to locate the rack of semen to be transferred.

Develop a semen inventory system and mount it on the wall above the tank.

Try to keep semen from one bull on each rack. Such systems help avoid unnecessary searching and exposure of semen to dangerously high temperatures within the neck region.

When preparing to thaw semen raise the canister into the lower portion of the neck where the specific rack of semen can be grasped. Lower the canister further into the neck. Secure the rack as low as possible in the neck, thus protecting the other straws from thermal damage. If straws cannot be easily removed from the plastic goblet, bend the top tab of the rack to a 45° angle. This reduces the chance of bending the straw.

Use tweezers to transfer the straw to the thaw bath. Quickly lower the rack of semen and canister into the body of the tank.

Thawing of the semen within the straw starts to take place at room temperature after only four seconds, and as a "rapid thaw" is critical to obtaining minimum damage to the sperm during the thawing process, damage will occur if the thaw takes place at room temperature. 

Few steps that are important for handling frozen semen include:

Keep insemination equipment clean, dry and ready at all times. The necessary equipment includes Thaw Unit, Thermometer, Lube, Gloves, Insemination gun, Paper towels, Cito cutter or scissors, Sheaths and Tweezers

The Thaw unit is one of the main equipments required to get the semen ready for AI. Either an electric thaw unit or a good reliable thermos is necessary to thaw semen. The goal is to maintain constant water temperature.

Occasionally check the accuracy of the thermometer.

Transfer straw immediately to thaw unit. The temperature of water should be 95-98 degrees F or 35-37 degrees C. Thaw straw for at least 40 seconds but not for more than 15 minutes.

Do not attempt to thaw semen at temperatures greater than 98 degrees F (37 degrees C). Thaw units of semen individually or max 3 straws as thawing more straws does compromise fertility.

With tweezers, remove the straw from thaw unit and dry the straw, using a clean paper towel. Place the straw in the fold of the towel to dry. A small drop of water can be lethal to sperm.

(It is assumed that the bull identification code has been checked prior to thawing and a proper semen has been taken out of the canister)

Shake the air bubble from the middle of the straw to the crimped end. Cut off the crimped end of the straw with a scissors or Cito cutter. Cut the tip of the straw squarely, through the air space below the crimp to achieve a 90 degrees cut. An angle cut may prevent the straw from fitting securely into the sheath. Check to see that the straw is firmly seated into the plastic adaptor or tip of the sheath depending on the type of inseminating device/AI gun that is used.

When assembly of the insemination rod is complete, gently depress the syringe to remove the air space at the upper end of the straw. Eliminate the chance of cold shock by warming the inseminating rod and sheath to body temperature (do not use water for this purpose). Use a paper towel and warm by use of friction. Must be done prior to the start of thaw process.

1.   Handle the thawed semen and prepare the insemination rod in a warm environment. Wrap the assembled insemination rod in a clean, dry paper towel and tuck it within your clothing for transport to the cow. Inseminate the cow within a few minutes after the semen has been thawed. Never take shortcuts when handling semen or inseminating a cow. Pay attention to detail. Never experiment on your own.

Five most common errors people commit when handling frozen semen and getting ready to inseminate the cow.

1. Raising the canister containing the semen canes above the frost line of the tank (frost line is usually 4 to 5 inches from the top) and removing the semen from the cane using fingers not tweezers. Exposing frozen semen to elevated temperatures in the neck tube of the tank has the potential to cause sperm damage.

2. Improper thaw bath temperature. Either not using a thermometer to obtain thaw bath temperature of 95 deg F/37 deg C or using a thermometer that needs adjustment, thus not obtaining the desired water bath temperature.

3. Not timing thawing. Frozen semen should be in 95 deg F water bath for a minimum of 40 seconds for proper thawing.

4. Straw not dried completely prior to placement in the insemination rod.

5. Straw not cut at proper distance from crimp sealed end (middle of air bubble) at a right angle straight across the straw to prevent semen feedback inside the sheath and insemination rod.

If semen is not thawed properly to begin with, the technician doesn’t need to worry about cold shock as “Dead sperms do not get cold shock”..!!!

Other considerations to get the best results
1. Handle animals gently to avoid unnecessary excitement before, during, and after breeding. Undue excitement may adversely affect sperm transport within the female reproductive system causing a lower conception rate.
2. Breed animals based on standing heat, remembering to breed the animals 10 to 12 hours after the beginning of standing behavior.

Amit Sachdev
India Consultant
World Wide Sires, USA
Email: indiawws@gmail.com